Mysterious Mushrooms: A Text for Students

 When my daughter was 3, we had a particularly wet fall, which led to masses of white mushrooms growing in our lawn. Ever the vigilant parent, I tried to impress upon her that the mushrooms were not to be eaten. She took my warnings a bit too much to heart, however, and for the next month would not even run in the part of the yard with the mushrooms. Evidently I had scared her a little bit too much!

On our nature hikes, I tried to remedy this situation by pointing out interesting and beautiful mushrooms. Eventually she overcame her early fears and even joined us in that great d
elight of childhood, poking puffballs with a stick. If you're not familiar with these awesome mushrooms, puffballs give off a cloud of "smoke" (actually spores) once they have dried out. 

I noticed that some of my students shared my daughter's early mushroom fears, so I decided to write about mushrooms as part of a unit on summarizing. This text also covers some key science information! For the formatted version of the text plus activities, click here: Paraphrasing and Summarizing Lessons for Nonfiction Reading.

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Mysterious Mushrooms

If April showers bring May flowers, what do September showers bring?

Mushrooms!

In many places across the United States, a wet end to summer leads to many, many mushrooms. They grow in forests. They grow on lawns. They even pop up out of the mulch around playgrounds! 

But what are mushrooms, really? Are they plants? Are they poisonous? Should we be afraid of these autumn mysteries?

Mushrooms: More like an apple than a tree

Mushrooms are not plants. In fact, the mushroom that you see is only a part of a larger organism called a fungus. (When we talk about more than one fungus, we call them fungi.)

Fungi have long strands called hyphae that grow underground. These hyphae feed on dead matter. In rainy weather, some kinds of fungi send up mushrooms. While it seems like the mushrooms appear overnight, they’re actually just a part of a larger organism—the fungus. This is why the mushroom is more like the apple than the tree.

Apples have seeds. These seeds are how trees reproduce. Then what do fungi have? Instead of seeds, fungi have spores. Mushrooms produce the tiny spores. Spores float away on the wind. Some settle on the ground and grow new fungi.

Poisonous or edible?

Everyone has heard of poisonous mushrooms. It’s true—there are some kinds of mushrooms that can be deadly. But millions of people pick and eat wild mushrooms every year with no problems.

Mushroom hunters must know which kinds of mushrooms are safe, and which are deadly. Many wild mushrooms hunters stick to a few very common, very safe varieties. These mushrooms are almost impossible to confuse with a deadly mushroom. 

Mushroom hunters also must take good field guides with them when they are looking for mushrooms. It’s not enough to just match a picture. Mushroom hunters read about where edible mushrooms can be found, what they look like, and what their stalks and spore prints are like. They have to look at several sources of information to be sure that a mushroom is safe.

When people aren’t careful, they can become very sick or even die from eating the wrong mushroom. Every year, some people end up in the hospital after eating the Death Cap mushroom. This mushroom looks like a safe kind of mushroom from Asia. People who know the safe mushroom think that the Death Cap mushroom must be safe to eat. Sadly, this isn’t the case. 

Some people worry that just touching a poisonous mushroom can be deadly. Luckily, for most mushrooms, the poison cannot be absorbed through the skin. If you don’t eat the mushroom, you can’t be poisoned. Some mushrooms can irritate the skin, however, so it's always important to be careful.

Fungi and Trees

No one really knows how many kinds of fungi exist in North America. About 10,000 species have been described, but there might be more than twice as many. 

What scientists do know is that fungi are important to forest ecosystems. Fungi help to break down dead leaves and wood. Some kinds of fungi live next to the roots of certain trees. The fungi help the trees to get minerals and moisture, while the tree gives the fungi nutrients. Gardeners can even buy beneficial fungi to put in the soil around trees. These fungi help the trees to grow. 

Next autumn, try looking for mysterious mushrooms around your house!

by Emily Kissner

©2024. Permission granted for single classroom use. This text may not be resold or included in any products offered for sale.

Water Pollution: A Text for Students

 Teaching about water pollution is very important! Too often, though, text written on the topic quickly gets technical and too difficult for students to understand. I wrote this text as a cause and effect text that would also describe point and nonpoint water pollution. 

Over the years, I have used it for reading instruction and science lessons in both fourth and sixth grades. It's a workhorse text that provides good background for further investigation.

You can find the text and activities in this packet: Cause and Effect Texts for Nonfiction Reading.

Reading level: 4/5, Lexile 840

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Water Pollution

Water is an important resource. Every living thing on Earth depends on water. Sometimes, though, people add things to water that shouldn’t be there. This is called water pollution.

Point Source Pollution

  Point pollution comes from a single source. For example, suppose that chemicals from a factory flow out of a pipe into a river. This is point source pollution. 

 Point source pollution has been a big problem. Factories dumped huge amounts of waste into rivers and lakes in the 1800s and early 1900s. This waste included chemicals, ashes, wood pulp, and even dye. 

This pollution sometimes caused rivers to turn colors.  Some waterways became so smelly that no one wanted to be near them. The Cuyahoga River in Ohio became so polluted that it caught fire several times between 1936 and 1969. 

Serious point source water pollution can make wildlife sick. A fish kill occurs when hundreds or thousands of fish die at once. People who eat fish from polluted waters can become sick as well. 

 

Nonpoint Source Pollution

 Nonpoint source pollution does not come from a single source. It is impossible to find the exact place that nonpoint pollution came from. Run-off of oil and gasoline from parking lots is one kind of nonpoint pollution. Soil that washes from construction sites and farms is another kind of nonpoint pollution.

Nonpoint pollution can have damaging effects. Oil can contaminate drinking water. Soil that washes from fields can make streams and rivers muddy. This makes it harder for plants to grow. Pesticides that wash into waterways can kill helpful insects and other animals.

Both kinds of water pollution can cause damage to our streams, rivers, and oceans. Laws and regulations have stopped many cases of point source pollution. However, nonpoint source pollution can be harder to fight. Many people don’t even realize that nonpoint source pollution is happening with every rainstorm. By working together to find solutions, hopefully people can create ways to stop both kinds of water pollution. 

by Emily Kissner

©2024. Permission granted for single classroom use. This text may not be resold or included in any products offered for sale.

Decomposers: A Text for Students

  This week, I've been working to update my Paraphrasing and Summarizing unit. It's a unit that I wrote and added to over a period of 10 years, so doing a complete overhaul is a major undertaking! 

   As I work on it, I am looking for specific articles to meet reading level and content requirements. This one, "Decomposers: Delightful or Disgusting?" fits the bill! It's a text that I haven't personally taught with since I left teaching fourth grade, but I remember how fun it was to use with students. It's a great starter for a unit on the food chain or to introduce a bread mold experiment.

   You can find a formatted and printable version of
the article here: Ecosystems Informational Text Set.

Reading level: 3/4, Lexile 620

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Decomposers: Delightful or Disgusting?

Have you ever seen what happens when a banana turns brown and mushy? Then you have seen decomposers at work.

Have you ever looked at a rotting log? Then you have seen decomposers at work.

Have you ever observed an earthworm? Then you have seen a decomposer.

 Types of Decomposers

 There are many different types of decomposers. Mushrooms are a type of fungi. Fungi cannot make their own food. Instead, they absorb nutrients from dead things. They are decomposers. There are thousands of different kinds of fungi in the world.

Sow bugs and earthworms are decomposers also. Both of these creatures eat dead matter. Then, when their body gets rid of waste, the nutrients go back into the soil. Gardeners like earthworms because they make the soil nice and rich for plants to grow.

Some decomposers are too tiny for us to see without a microscope. These include bacteria and other tiny organisms. These decomposers are especially important! If you have every watched a banana rot, or smelled spoiled milk, you have seen evidence of these tiny decomposers. They do most of the work of breaking things down.

Puffballs are a kind of decomposer.

 A Part of the Food Chain

Decomposers are an important part of the food chain. They add nutrients back into the soil. They break down dead things.

 In the forest, you can see decomposers at work by looking at a rotting log. Termites and beetles eat the soft wood. They lay their eggs in the log. When the eggs hatch, the baby insects, or larvae, eat the decaying wood.

 Birds and other insect-eaters come to the rotting logs to feast on the insects. You might see a woodpecker or a wood thrush eating the bugs. Other animals, like foxes, might come to eat the small birds.

This rotting log provides food for many animals.

In the Compost Pile

Many people don’t like decomposers. They think of them as disgusting. 

 But other people know how important decomposers are. Some people even have compost piles. A compost pile is a place to put some kinds of kitchen waste, like banana peels and apple cores. When decomposers break down the waste, good soil is left behind.  This soil can be used in gardens. 

What do you think? Are decomposers delightful, or disgusting?

by Emily Kissner

©2024. Permission granted for single classroom use. This text may not be resold or included in any products offered for sale.

Creatures of the Day, Creatures of the Night: A Compare and Contrast Text

     When I was teaching fourth grade science, I needed a quick reading selection for students that explained the difference between nocturnal and diurnal creatures. I couldn't find what I wanted! In typical fashion, I decided to do some research and write my own.

     My research led me to making some fun discoveries in my own neighborhood. While sitting outside at dusk on a summer evening, I noticed that the barn swallows disappeared a few minutes before the bats came out. Swooping, diving barn swallows fill the same niche as the bats, but they are the day shift workers! Niche is an important ecological concept that comes up naturally in talking about nocturnal and diurnal animals, so I made sure to include it in the text.

Reading level: Written for fourth grade, but the use of crepuscular causes readability formulas to short-circuit. Which is why I view reading level formulas with some skepticism!

To find a formatted version of this text with activities to support science and reading skills, click here: Animal Adaptations Article and Activities.

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 If you spend time observing animals, you may notice that different animals can be spotted at different times. Robins and blue jays like to fly during the day. Bats and owls can be seen at night. Why do some animals prefer daylight hours, while others prefer darkness?

Diurnal: Daylight Creatures

   Creatures that are active during the day are called diurnal. These animals have special adaptations to help them do well in daylight hours. Many of them have good eyesight in bright light, such as peregrine falcons, dragonflies, and red-tailed hawks. Some diurnal creatures show warning coloration to scare off predators, like bumblebees.

Nocturnal: Night Creatures

Some animals are active at night. These animals are called nocturnal. Nocturnal animals also have special adaptations to help them find food at night. Bats use echolocation to find food in the dark. Owls can see well in the dark, and so can cats. 

Many nocturnal creatures have very large eyes. Big eyes help them to see in low light. Some nocturnal animals, like red foxes, also have excellent hearing.

Crepuscular Creatures

Many creatures are most active in the morning and the evening. These creatures are called crepuscular. They aren’t diurnal, but they aren’t nocturnal either.

Many animals that are sometimes called nocturnal are actually crepuscular. For example, white-tailed deer are crepuscular. People can usually see them early in the morning or at dusk in the evening. Cottontail rabbits are also crepuscular. Fireflies, the special insects that light up to attract mates, are crepuscular as well.

It’s All About Niche

  Why are some animals diurnal, and others are nocturnal or crepuscular? Different animals have different niches, or roles in ecosystems. No matter when they are active, all animals seek to find food and raise their young. For example, barn swallows are small birds that love open meadows and farmlands. They swoop around during the day, catching and eating insects.

Little brown bats live in the same habitat as the barn swallow. They also swoop around to catch and eat insects. But barn swallows and brown bats don’t compete. Why not? Barn swallows fly by day, while brown bats fly by night. Each has its own niche in the ecosystem.

There are many examples of day and night animals sharing a niche. Bees are well-known pollinators during the day. At night, moths take over, and pollinate large, fragrant flowers. Another example of niche sharing can be seen with owls and hawks. Hawks hunt rodents during the day, while owls hunt at night. 

 For many animals, being adapted to be active during the day, night, or twilight can help them to find food and avoid competition. Try observing some animals around your house. What do you notice?

by Emily Kissner

©2024. Permission granted for single classroom use. This text may not be resold or included in any products offered for sale.

The Life of the Wood Frog: A Chronological Order Text

    One hot summer day, my son and I discovered a tiny frog on the trail at a state park. We were in the forest, far from a creek or pond, and the little frog hopped along unconcernedly, peering back at us through its black mask. At home, I looked up the tiny amphibian and was delighted to learn that I had encountered a wood frog!

     Over the next few years I started looking for wood frog eggs and tadpoles in vernal pools. We even tried raising some in the classroom! When I was looking for topics for chronological order texts, I decided to research the life cycle of the wood frog. These little frogs have fascinated students in my class for many years.

    I enjoy teaching with this text so much that I have made it available in multiple formats. For a digital activity, click here: Informational Text: The Life of the Wood Frog.

    You can also find this activity in a printable format, with other chronological order texts, here: Close Reading with Chronological Order Texts.

Reading level: 4/5, lexile 970

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The Life of the Wood Frog

  Winter Nights

 Think about spending the night in the forest on the coldest night of the winter. To survive, you would need to wear a heavy coat, boots, a hat, and gloves. Even with all of these items, it would still be a very cold, very long night.

 In the forest, you might be sitting within a few inches of a tiny forest survivor. The wood frog lives through winter without a coat, without a hat, even without being warm-blooded. More amazingly, wood frogs have been found to freeze solid in winter. A night that would be dismal for you would be no big deal to a frozen frog-sicle.

Although they are small, wood frogs are interesting. From their birth in vernal pools to their secretive lives in upland forests, wood frogs have been surprising scientists for over a hundred years.

 Springtime Awakenings

As the winter days grow longer and the temperature warms, the frozen wood frogs thaw out and awaken. Depending on the daily temperatures, this can happen in late February to early March. The wood frogs then head off to a special place called a vernal pool. A vernal pool is a forest pond that is only wet in the springtime. Because of this, no fish live in vernal pools.

   Male and female wood frogs gather at vernal pools. Male wood frogs chorus at night, making sounds that have been compared to the quacking of a duck. Their chorus can be quite loud, often blending in with the sounds of spring peepers and other springtime frogs. 

Shortly after mating, the female frogs lay eggs. They often create large masses of eggs, attached to a stick or some other vegetation. These large egg masses are called “rafts”. Putting many eggs close together may help keep the eggs warm. After only one or two short weeks at the vernal pool, the adult frogs leave to return to their solitary lives in the forest.

Growing up in a vernal pool

 The wood frog eggs are left behind in the vernal pool. With no fish around, the eggs have few predators. But there is a risk to this strategy. The wood frog eggs need to develop into tadpoles quickly, before the pool dries up at the end of the summer.

 Wood frog tadpoles emerge from their eggs in April. They are tiny, black, and hungry. In the vernal pool, they find plenty of food to eat—decaying leaves, algae, and other plant matter. As they eat and grow, the tadpoles change color, becoming more of a greenish-brown.

The tadpoles eat their way through the rest of the spring. Scientists have found that they are able to recognize their “siblings”, other tadpoles from the same wood frog parents. These siblings often group themselves together in the vernal pool. Scientists think that sticking together helps them to find food and avoid predators.

As May turns to June, the tadpoles start to grow legs. First, the back legs grow. Then, the front legs develop. Tadpoles stop eating shortly before they finish their transformation. Finally, their lungs develop and they are ready for life on land.

Warm weather can speed up the transformation process. As temperatures warm up, the tadpoles may develop more quickly. Tadpoles that have not developed when the vernal pool dries up may die or be eaten by birds or small mammals. For this reason, the faster transformation may help wood frogs to survive.

 Return to the forest

 After they have fully developed, the baby wood frogs leave the vernal pool. Unlike other frogs, wood frogs prefer dry, upland forests, and do not live near water as adults. Once the wood frogs leave the pond, they lead somewhat mysterious lives. If you go into the forest to find wood frogs, you may be disappointed. There is no one place where you can dependably find the small amphibians. But a small wood frog might jump across your path when you least expect it.

Wood frogs eat insects and other small invertebrates throughout the summer. When the air turns cold in November or December, they shelter under leaves or logs. Special substances in their blood actually promote freezing. By controlling the freezing process, wood frogs can prevent jagged ice crystals from tearing apart their cells. Instead, the ice forms in the spaces between cells. This allows the wood frog to survive being frozen.

This amazing ability of wood frogs was very surprising to scientists. The first accounts of frozen wood frogs, written in the early 1900s, were viewed with disbelief. In recent years, scientists have become very interested in this ability of wood frogs. Many biologists have investigated wood frogs too see if their freezing tolerance could be useful to humans, especially for medical procedures such as organ transplants.

Throughout the rest of the winter, even on those frozen nights when you would huddle indoors, wood frogs stay frozen in their winter shelters. In February and March, as the days grow longer and the temperatures increase, wood frogs awaken. Once more they make their journeys to the vernal pools.

by Emily Kissner

©2024. Permission granted for single classroom use. This text may not be resold or included in any products offered for sale.

Mole Crabs: Life at the Water's Edge

      When my children were little, looking for tiny mole crabs became a summer tradition. These little crustaceans spend their lives in the crashing waves. I knew I had to write an article for students about these charismatic crabs!

      This article is written in a statement and support text structure. You can find the formatted version, plus activities and a companion story, in this text set: Comparing Texts.

Grade level: 3/4, lexile 760

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     Imagine living in a place where the salty ocean water crashes against you. Where every wave pounds against the sand, a place of noise and crashing water. To the tiny mole crab, this is home sweet home.

If you have ever visited a beach, you have probably seen one of these creatures. Mole crabs are one of the few creatures to live in the area of the beach called the surf zone, where the water meets the sand. Like other crabs, mole crabs have ten legs. If you have ever held one, you probably know that they love to dig! 

This digging is what helps them to survive in the surf zone. Mole crabs always dig backwards into the sand. As waves crash over them, they stick out their antennae. Bits of food are always churning about in the ocean water. These food bits stick to their antennae. Then the mole crabs can eat the food!

Digging also helps mole crabs to escape from predators. Sea gulls find them pretty tasty. Larger crabs, like ghost crabs, will also eat them. And people often collect mole crabs to use as bait for fishing. 

But mole crabs are more than just prey. They are fascinating little creatures, tiny crabs that live in a harsh place. Mole crabs can be found in many different areas, and have many different names. In some places, they are called sand crabs. They are also called beach hoppers. 

The next time you find one, observe it carefully. Can you find its antennae? How many legs does it have? Can you see it digging backwards? These little creatures have a lot to share! 

by Emily Kissner

©2024. Permission granted for single classroom use. This text may not be resold or included in any products offered for sale.

The Peregrine Falcon: Description Text

 From our visits to zoos and nature centers, my own children were always fascinated by peregrine falcons. And why shouldn't they be? Peregrine falcons are amazing creatures, with speed, power, and an amazing survival story.

I featured peregrine falcons in a text set for "Introduction to Text Structure," a multi-level unit aimed at third and fourth grade readers. You can find the formatted text, as well as activities and lesson plans, in this unit. 

Reading level: Third and fourth grade, lexile 520

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 What is the fastest animal on Earth?

Many people would say the cheetah. It’s true that cheetahs are very fast. 

But the fastest animals on Earth don’t run on land. They fly in the air. Peregrine falcons are the fastest!

  Peregrine falcons live all over the world. They all look similar. Peregrines are 1-2 feet tall. They have a wingspan of up to four feet. They have a sharp, hooked beak. Their wings are dark gray to black. They have fine stripes of brown, gray, and white across their chests.

But the most important features of peregrine falcons help them to go fast. Peregrine falcons eat birds. They dive to catch these birds in the air. When they are diving, they can reach speeds of over 200 miles per hour. That is as fast as a race car! Their long wings help them to make their fast dives. Special nostrils help them take in air as they dive. And they have a sleek, streamlined shape. 

Peregrine falcons are the fastest animals in the world. They are amazing to see—unless, of course, you are a small bird.

by Emily Kissner

©2024. Permission granted for single classroom use. This text may not be resold or included in any products offered for sale.